IRON EXTRACTION IN MEDICINAL HERBS FROM PAKISTAN BY ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROPHOTOMETER

Abstract

In this study, concentration of iron has been estimated in twenty different herbs having folk medicinal uses. A dry digestion procedure involving the ash preparation (which consist of metal contents), by the use of Muffle furnace is applied. Flame atomic absorption spectrometry has been used to quantify iron level. Results show the presence of variable amounts of iron in these herbs/plant samples. The leaves of Nut grass (Cyperus rotundus) and Tale wort (Onosma bracteatum) have extremely high iron concentration which is > 9000 µg/g. The worm wood (Artemisia cinaberg), Bitter stick (Swertia Chirata), Water lily (Nymphea lotas) and Bamboo gum (Bambusa arundinacea) also reflects a high conc. Of iron of about > 5000 µg/g. The iron level > 3000 µg/g were found in Turpeth (Ipomea turpetum), Tail pepper (Cubeba officianalis), Margosa tree-leaves (Melia azedarach), India beach (Pongermia glabra), Arjuna myrobalan (Lactuca scariola) and purple goat’s (Calophyllum Inophyllum). Whereas, Emblica (Polygonoma emblica), Sweet violet (Viola surpens) and Yellow thistle (Tricholepis glabarima) have comparatively less amount of iron i.e. < 2000 µg/g. Therefore, this study suggest that such medicinal plants may be frequently used  for the treatment of different ailments, as a source of  direct iron supplements in addition to their other benefits.

INTRODUCTION

            In living organisms maintaining of body system is an active process demanding continuous expenditure of energy. The energy is provided by food consumed and used for maintenance of activities. If there is no food, body utilizes its own tissues for energy providing and when the storage consume, life ceases. So food is vital for the survival of life.

1.1    NUTRITION:

            Nutrition is a science that deals with the provision of balance diet, under varying conditions for maintenance of health and disease prevention. Thus; it is a complex and specialized subject.

1.1.1  PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES OF FOOD:

            Six different constituents are absolutely necessary in diet which are called proximate principles of food. They are, (1) Protein (2) Fats,

(3) Carbohydrates, (4) Vitamins, (5) Water, and (6) minerals.

1.2    BALANCED DIET:

            A diet is said to be a balanced one, when it includes proportionate quantities of food items selected from the different basic food groups, so as to supply the essential nutrients in complete fulfillment of the requirement of the body.

1.3    IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS IN BODY.

            Minerals are of great importance both from structural and biochemical point of view. It is observed that at least 25 different types of minerals are found in the body, which are required for physiological functions of body.

1.3.1  NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT OF MINERALS.

            Minerals  may be categorized based on extent to which they are required.

1.3.1.1MACROMINERALS:

            They are nutritionally important mineral or principal elements. The daily requirement of these are greater than 100 mgs. Their deficiency can prove fatal. These include Na, K, Cl, Ca, P Mg and S.

1.3.1.2 MICRO/TRACE MINERALS:

            Their requirement is less than 100 mgs. per day, but essential for proper maintenance of body functions. For example, Cr, Co, Fe, Cu, I, Mn, Mo, Se, Zn, etc.

1.4 IRON:

            Iron is one of the most essential and 4^th most abundant element in the earth crust. It is one of the most important trace element of the body.

1.4.1 ROLE OF IRON IN BODY:

            The role of iron in the body is almost exclusively confined to processes of cellular respiration. Iron porphysin (heme) groups are essential components of hemoglobin, Mayoglobin, cytochvome (important in biological onidation  reduction reaction), Enzyme catalase, peroxidase. It act as an enzyme cofactor . The remainder of iron in the body (non heme iron) is almost entirely protein-bound. These forms include the intracellular iron containing flouoproteins (NADH) dehydrogenase and succinate dehydrogenase) and iron sulpher proteins as well as storage and transport forms of the mineral. Iron is found in form of Fe +3 of about 4g in blood, out of which 65% present in heamoglobin and 15-30% is stored in liver and bone marrow in the form of ferritin.

1.4.2 TWO FORMS OF BODY IRON :

            There are two broad categories that are used to describe iron in the body. They are:

            1.         Essential (or functional) iron.

            2.         Storage iron.

1.4.2.1  Essential Iron:

            Essential or functional iron is one of which is involved in the normal metabolism of the cells.

1.4.2.1.1          Heme Proteins:

1.4.2.1.1.1       Haemoglobin & Mayoglobin: These are heme proteins, which are proteins with an iron porphyrin prosthetic group attached to the protein globin.

1.4.2.1.1.2       Catalases: A heme containing enzyme. It contains four heme groups and is found in blood, bone narrow, mucous membrane, liver and kidney. It destroys H₂O₂, formed in the tissue.

1.4.2.1.1.3       Peroxidase:It is typically a plant enzyme, but it is also found in milk, RBC’s, Lencocytes and lens fibres.

1.4.2.1.2          Cytochromes: It is an organo-iron compound chiefly found in mitochondria.

1.4.2.1.3          Iron requiring enzymes: This group contains enzymes that use riboffavin as coenzyme like NADH-reductase, Acetyl CoA dehydrogenase, cytochrome-C reductase, etc. other enzyme require iron only as cofactor.

1.4.2.2Storage Iron:

            Storage iron is present in two major compounds. They are:

·         Ferritin.

·         Haemosiderin.

1.4.2.2.1                    Ferritin:Free iron is toxic and catalyzes the conversion of O2^- to hydroxy OH oxy radicals. Iron bound to ferritin is non-toxic. It is the storage protein of iron and found in blood, liver, spleen, bone marrow and intestine (mucosal cells).

1.4.2.2.2                    Haemosiderin:Evidence suggests that haemoriderin is drived from ferritin and is ferritin with partially stripped shell. It has large amount of Fe than ferritin and exists as microscopically visible Fe-staining particle. It is visible in states of iron overload.

1.5           TRANSFERRIN:

            Transferrin is a non-heme iron bound glycoprotein. Apotransferrin is the apoenzyme and Fe is its prosthetic group. It exist in plasma as B₁-globulin  and is the true carrier of iron. In plasma, transferring is saturated only to the extent of 30% to 33% with iron ceruloplasmin and ferroxidase II are required for this conversion.

            Major function of transferring is transport of iron to R.E. Cells, bone marrow to reach immature red cell of blood. Specific receptors are available on cell surface. Within the target cell iron is released and apotransferrin is recycled to form new transferring molecules.

1.6           DIETARY SOURCES OF IRON:

1.6.1       Exogenous:

Food rich in iron include:

1.6.1.1 Animal sources: Meat, fish, liver, spleen, red marrow are vary rich sources (2-6 mg/100gm). Also present in shellfish.

1.6.1.2 Plant sources: cereals (2-8 mg/100gm) are the major rich source. Legumes, molasses, nuts, amaranth leaves. Dates are other iron rich source.

1.6.2    Endogenous:

Fe is utilized from ferritin of RE system and intestinal mucosal cells. Fe obtained from “effete” red cells are also reutilized.

1.7    IRON REQUIREMENT:

            An average diet should supply the recommended daily allowance of iron. However, fortification of food is considered desirable in common practice. The recommended daily amounts of iron currently suggested by nutritional authorities are as follows:

1        Infants:                              10-15 mg

2        Children:                           1-3 year of age, 15 mg, 4-10 years of age, 10 mg.

3        Young’s to adults:             11-18 year of age, 18mg; after 19 years of age,10mg.

4        Females:                            11-50 years of age,and during pregnancy or lactation,18mg.           

5        After 51 years of age:       10mg 

            Although the amount of iron in the body is small (about 45mg/Kg. body weight), the fact that it is an essential constituent of hemoglobin and of cytochrome and other component of respiratory enzyme systems (cytochrome omidase, catalase, peroxidase), makes it an element of great fundamental importance. Its chiefly lie in the transport of Oxygen to the tissue (hemoglobin) and in cellular evidation mechanism (cytochrome system).

1.8           IRON METABOLISM:

1.8.1 ABSOPTION OF IRON:

            The body store of iron are conserved vary efficiently, only minute amount being excreted in urine and faces usually less then 1mg daily.

            Several factors make absorption of iron difficult, regardless of the form in which it is ingested: (1) the relatively high PH in the jejunum favours the formation of insoluble basic Fe compounds; (2) Fe salt of bile acid are relatively insoluble; (3) the presence of relatively large amount of phosphate favours the formation of insoluble Fe phosphates; (4) absorption of Fe is interfered with, therefore, in the absence of free HCL in the stomach and by administration of alkalis.

            Absorption occur chiefly in the upper duodenum and stomach, but to a lesser extent, throughout the small intestine. Absorption of inorganic salts of Fe compares favorably with that of the Fe of foodstuffs, which is chiefly a colloidal ferric hydroxide. In general Ferrous Fe is better absorbed then ferric.

1.8.2        IRON TRANSPORTATION:

            It has been suggested that slight decrease in circulating Hb, with a fall in O₂ content, may favour reduction of ferric to ferrous iron, causing breakdown of ferritin to apoferritin and permitting absorption of additional iron. The ferrous iron thus mobilized passes into blood plasma, undergoes reoxidation to the ferric state and combines with one of the plasma β-globulins. This compound termed “siderophilin” (“transferring”), is present in a concentration of about 0.25g/100ml. Plasma. Each molecule can combine with two atoms of iron. The Fe contents of plasma is 50-80 mg/100ml; this is the transport Fe (\ferric).

            The Fe content of whole blood is normally 40-60mg/100ml; averaging 45mg in women and 52mg in men. Practically all of this is in organic from, as hemoglobin, which contain about 0.335% Fe (Ferrous) all of which is in red blood cells.

1.8.3        UTILIZATION OF IRON IN THE BODY:

            In the tissues, as needed, the plasma iron is apparently released from siderophilin, passes out of the capillary and into the cell, where it may be utilized or stored (as ferritin).

            Iron utilized chiefly in the synthesis of hemoglobin, mayoglobin, cytochrome, etc. The approximate distribution of Fe in the body is given as follows: (1) Circulating Hb, 70%, (2) Mayoglobin, 5% (3) storage Fe, 20% mainly in the liver, (4) Functional Fe of tissue (respiratory enzyme) 5%.

            Thus about 75% body iron is in form of heamoglobin, 20% in storage form and 5% in functional iron form.

            Mobilization of Fe from ferritin in storage site, e.g. liver is accomplished by several of reactions involved in its storage in case of gastrointestinal epithelium, this may involved initial reduction of ferric to ferrous Fe⁺², the latter passing out of the cell into the blood stream; this disturbs the intracellular Fe equilibrium, ferritin breaking down to Fe and apoferritin.

1.8.4        IRON STORAGE:

            The liver, spleen, and intestinal mucosa are the chief storage sites, but other organ (e.g. Pancreas, adrenals) and all reticuloendothelial cells contain ferritin. When Fe is deposited in abnormally large amounts, hemosiderin may be formed, a compound similar to ferritin, but containing Fe upto 35%.

            As much as there is efficient excretory mechanism for iron when amount exceeding the capacity for its utilization are released in or introduced into the body, the excess is deposited in various tissues, mainly in the liver (siderosis). This may occur in conditions of excessive hemolysis, excessive parenteral iron therapy, or repeated blood transfusions. Nutritional siderosis occur then to high intake of iron (iron rich food & iron cooking pots).

1.8.5        EXCRETION:

            The efficiency of utilization of endogenous iron is such that only small quantities are lost under normal conditions, averaging about 0.5 to 1.5mg/day in men and approximately double this amount in women. Small amounts are lost in the sweat (<0.5 or 1mg), minute quantities in the hair and the remainder largely in the feces (0.3 to 0.75mg). The latter fecal is contributed to by (1) true excretion, (2) desquamated mucosal cells, and (3) incompletely reabsorbed biliary iron.

1.9 CLINICAL ASPECTS:

1.9.1    Iron Deficiency:

Three stages of iron deficiency are:

1.9.1.1  Iron storage depletion: This phase is not usually recognizable by the patient. Serum ferritin decreases during this phase and is the only good indication of possible iron deficiency.

1.9.1.2  Iron deficiency: In this phase iron stores are almost exhausted. Biochemically the serum ferritin is low and transferring saturation is low. Hemoglobin concentration falls to the lowest limit of normal.

1.9.1.3  Iron deficiency anemia: Iron deficiency anemia is manifested as hypochromic macrocytic anemia. At this phase.

·         Hb concentration continues to fall.

·         Serum ferritin level shows slow decline.

·         Transferrin saturation continues to fall.

·         Erthrocyte protoporphyrin increases to upper limit of normal.

1.9.2    Iron overload:

Iron overload is also an important clinical concern. Iron stores may increase due to:

·         Excessive absorption.

·         Parental iron.

·         Repeated transfusions.

Cells start to fill with excess of haemosiderin. Both reticuloendothelial cells and parenchymal cells sequester iron.

Types: Two broad types of iron overload seen.

1.9.2.1 Haemochromatsis:

            It can be of two types:

1.9.2.1.1                    Primary hereditary haemochromatosis:

            It is autosomal, recessive, inherited disorder. Massive accumulation of iron, mainly as ferritin and haemosiderin, in visceral organs, principally liver and skin is reported. Deposition of iron in mayocardium can cause cardio-myopathy and heart failure. It also increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma.

1.9.2.1.2                    Secondary haemochromatosis:

            It is due to ineffective erythropoiesis an in thalassaemia, erthrogenesis imperfecta or with repeated blood transfusion, haemodialytic patients. It exhibits more even distribution of iron between macrophages and hepatocytes. Long term accumulation of iron in hepatocytes leads to hepatocellular necrosis and secondary scarring and rarely a micronodular cirrhosis develops.

1.9.2.2  SIDEROSIS OR HAEMOSIDEROSIS:

            In this disease iron absorption is enhanced. There PO₄ intake is usually low. Low phosphate aggravates increased Fe absorption. Repeated blood transfusions, thalassaemia and hereditary haemolytic anemia may also result in this condition.

            Idiopathic, pulmonary haemosiderosis occur by chronic episodic haemorrhages of the lungs of unknown etiology result in prominent haemosiderin deposition and fibrosis.

1.10  IRON CONTAINING HERBS:

            Herbs are rich storehouse of different bioactive compounds and are well known for their beneficial effects on health. Pakistanis endowed with the wealth of medicinal plants of both cultivated as well as wild herbs. Folk medicinal uses of various herbs and spices are well documented in the literature. Herbs and medicinal plants are also known to contain trace metals which play vital role as structural and functional components of metalloproteins and enzymes in living cells. Much work has been done on organic constituents of medicinal plants but little attention has been paid towards their metal contents. The present study was aimed to determine concentration of iron in following 20 herbs and medicinal plants of Pakistan.

1.10.1         Alexandrian laurel, (surpunka), Purple Goat’s.

·                   Calophyllum inophyllum.

·                   Family: Guttiferae.

            It is found near the sea-coast throughout the India. Its bark is astringent and the juice is purgative. Oil is rubefacient and irritant; but on the mucous membrane of the genitourinary organ it is specific. Its use is only external and gum is emetic and purgative. Its oil used externally in reheumatism, gonorrhoea, gleet and scabies (itch). Gym used for wounds and ulcers. Leaves soaked in water are applied to inflamed eyes.

1.10.2         Indian beech,(sukh chain).

            Pongermia glabra

·                   Family: Papilionaceae

            Seeds, stems, leaves, fruit, root and oil from the seeds are used for various purposes. Expressed oil from the seeds has antiseptic and stimulant healing properties. Oil appears to be an active agent as the residue after expression is inert. Seeds, leaves, root and oil are antiparasites , they destroy both vegetables and animal parasites in skin diseases. Bark is astringent. Powder seed are a febrifuge and toxic and have expectorant properties. Leaves are also cholagogue.Oil is applied to skin disease in scabies, sores, harpers and the like cases of eczema have been benefited by applying a mix of oil and zinc oxide. Internaly oil has some time used as a stomachic and     cholagogue in cases of dyspepsia with sluggish liver.Leaves are also used in diarrohoea and in cough. Powdered seeds are supposed to be of value in asthemic and dibiliterting conditions. They are also used very commonly in bronchitis and whooping cough. Young leaves are applied to bleeding piles. Dried flowers in powder, in combination with other ingredients is given as decoction in diabetes to quench thirst. Flowers are used as a remedy for diabetes.

1.10.3         White Silk Cotton Tree,(Safeed Simul).

·                   Eriodendron anfractuosum    

·                   Family:Bombacaceae

            The sea-coast district or Kashmir.Gum or dried juice act as tonic, alterative, astringent, aphrodisiac and laxative properties. Dried flowers are demulcent, root have stimulant and toxic effects and in large doses act as emetic. Unripe fruit are regarded as demulcent and astringent.Gum known as “hittian gond or mocharas is useful as a atyptic, ginen with benefit in diahroea, dysentery and menorrhagia. It is given in milk as a good tonic in importance and to children as a cooling laxative. In 20 to 30 grains doses with equal quantity of sugar. The gum is useful in the diarrhea of children. Extract eriodendron is used with success in diabetes.Tap root of the young plant is useful in gonorrhoea and dysentery. Leaves are ground into a paste and administered in gonorrhoea. Kapok seed oil serve in Europefor converting into butter substitutes.

1.10.4.        Tailpepper, (Kabab-chini), cubab.

·                   Cubeba officinalis.

·                   Family:Pipeeraceae

            This climbing woody bush is indigenous to Java, Samarta and Malay Arvhipelago, but also found in India. It is a stimulant, carminative, diuretic and expectorant. It is used as a carmintive spice and condiment, as stimulant to the mucous membrance in disease of genitor-urinary organ such as gonorrhoea, gleat, leacorrhoea and other vaginal discharges of women. As expectorant during fever, it is used and in the cough of old age. It is an excellent of gravel and stone from kidney and bladder.

 

1.10.5         Round Zedoary, (kachur).

·                   Curcuma zedoaria.

·                   Family;Scitaminaceae

            This is cultivated in gardens in many parts of India, Eastern Bengal and in districts of Chittagong and fipperah. Its root is useful in flatulence and dyspepsia and as a corrector of purgative. It is chewed for cleaning throat and curing fauces irritation and layrinks. It is carminative, expectorant, demulcent, diuretic and subefacient. This is a good substitute for many foreign foods for infants. Juice of leaves is given in dropsy.

1.10.6  Water Lilly ,( nilofer or kanwal).

·                   Nymphea lotus

·                   Family :Nymphaeceae

            It is bound to grow in tank and marshes throughout the warmer part of Pakistanand India. Flowers are said to be refrigerant and alleviative of cough, bile, vomiting, giddiness, worms and burning of the skin. A syrup of flower is useful in remittent and other high fevers, heat apoplexy and inflammatory diseases of brain. Filaments of these plants are astringent, cooling and useful in burning of the body, bleeding piles and menorrhagia. Seeds of N.stellatum are used in diabetes. Its powder is given in dyspepsia, diarrhea and piles.

1.10.7         Globe Flower,(Mundi).

·                   Sphaeranthus indicus.

·                   Family:Compositae

            A much branched herb with toothed wings and moe or less glandular hairy. It is distributed throughout Ceylon to Malay, India, China, Africa and Archipelago. The herb has bitter sharp flavour with a bad taste. It is laxative, digestible, tonic, fattening anathematic, alexipharmic and used in piles disease, asthma, dysentery, vomiting, urinary discharges, rectum pains and hemicrania. It is good for sore eyes, jaundice, scalding of urine, gleet, scabies, ringworm of waist and diseases of chest.

1.10.8         Sweet violet (Bnafsha), Serpens.

·                   Viola serpens.

·                   Family: Violaceae.

            It is distributed in Hilly districts throughout India, Ceylon, Burma, Java, Sumatva, China, Malay and Peninsula. The plant is bitter and pungent. It cures malarial fevers, bronchitis, asthma and abdominal jpains. The root is purgative, good febri fuge, tonic, expectorant, diuretic. It alleviates thrist removes inflammation and cures cough. The root is powerful emetic and is frequently used to adultrate ipecac. It acts as a hypnotic and sedative to the brain.

1.10.9         Yellow thristle, (Brahmdandi), small carpus.

·                   Fricholepis globerrima.

·                   Family: Compositae.

            It is distributed in Rajputana, central India, Konkan, Deccan, S.M. country, S. Kamara, Colrg and the hills of mysore. The plant is not and bitters which cures inflammation and used in leycodeuna and skin diseases. It is believed to be a nervine tonic and an aphrodisiac and also used in seminal debility. It acts as a blood purifier.

1.10.10       Absinth, Madderwort, (Afsantin); Worm wood.

·                   Artemisia absinthium.

·                   Family: Compositae.

            It founds in kahmir, north Asia, Afghanistan, Westward to the Atlantic. The whole herb is an aromatic tonic and formerly enjoyed a high reputation in debility of digestive organs. It has a powerful influence over nervous system. It is antiseptic, discutient, anthelmintic and intermittents. Neither the herb nor the oil are affective as anthelmintics, against hookworms.

1.10.11 Arjuna Myrobalan, (Kahu).

·                   Terminlia arjuna

·                   Family:Retaceae

            It is found in lower Himalayas, Bihar, Bengal, Burma, central and southern Indiaand Ceylon.Bark is astringent, cardiac, stimulant, tonic and lithontriptic. It is used in hemorrhages, in diarrohoea, dysentery and spruce. It is also useful in bilious affections and as an antidote to poison, also used in scorpion sting. Externally its leaves are used for covering ulcers and sores.

1.10.12       . Margosa Tree, (Neem).

·                   Melia azadirachta

·                   Family: Maliaceae

            Indigenous to and cultivated nearly all over Pakistan, India and Burma.Every part of the plant-bark, root-bark, young fruit, nut or seed, flowers, leaves, gum and toddy or sap are used. Bark and leaves are of particular interest from medicinal   point of view. This tree when planted is advantageous to health as a prophylactic against malaria. The bitter toxic, astringent and antiperiodic virulent of its bark have been confirmed even by European practitioners. It is effective in the treatment of intermittent and other paroxy small fever to relieve thirst, nausea, vomiting in fever, general debility, loss of appetite and skin diseases. Its oil is favorite applicant in tetanus, leprosy, urticaria, eczemaerysipelas. As insecticide it is applied for the destruction of lice.Fruits are used in ceprosy, intestinal worms, piles and urinary disease. It acts as a blood purifier.

1.10.13            Emblica, (Aamla).

·                   Emblica officinalis.

·                   Family: Euphorbiaceae.

            It is found in Deccan, the Sea coast districts and Kashmir, and widely spread cultivated herb. Fresh fruit is refrigerant, diuretic and laxative. It is a heart tonic, brain tonic. It used in chronic diarrhea, lung inflammation and eye irritation. An infusion of the seed is given as a febrifuge and in diabetes. It is also used as a collyrium and applied with benefit to recent inflammation of the conjunctiva and other eye complaints. It is vary effective in hair care and growth. Its fruit is carminative and stomachic, while dried fruit as sour and astringent.

1.10.14       Tale wort, (Gaozuban), Borage.

·                   Onosma bracteatum.

·                   Family: Boroginaceae.

            It is found in Western Hamalyas and Kashmir etc. It is esteemed as tonic, diuretic, demurcent, and alternative. It is much prescribed as tonic in decoction, in rheumatism, syphilis, laprosy, hypochondriasis and kidney diseases. It is a good refrigerant and relieving excessive thirst and restlessness in febrile excitement i.e. during fever. It also relieves functional palpitation of heart, irritation of stomach and bladder. It is used in the form of an infusion prepared with either cold or hot water in proportion of one in 20. It is a good substitute for sarsaparilla.

1.10.15       Knot grass, (Anjbar), bistorta.

·                   Polygonum aviculare.

·                   Family;Polygonaceae.

            It universally distributed throughout India. It is expectorant, diuretic, tonic, astringent, antiseptic and antiperiodic. When it is mixed with gentian it is given as a decoction of root in 1-2 ounces dores in malaria, chronic diarrhea and lithiasis. It also used in capillary bronchitis, whooping cough and other lung infections. DEecoction is used in gleet and leucorrhoea as an injection and as an excellent gougle in relaxed sore through. It is also an excellent lotion for ulcers.

1.10.16 Nut Grass ,(Korrhe Jhaar)

·                   Cyperus routundus

·                   Family :Cyperaceae        

            It is a plentiful species occurring throughout the plains of subcontinent.Its tubers or bulbous root is mainly used for various purposes. It act as stimulant, tonic, demulcent, diuretic, anthelmintic, stomachic, carminative, diaphoretic, astringent, emmengogue and vermituge, aphrodisiac, drives the futhoobath, in satone bladder, strengthens memory, chronic fevers palpitation, loss of apetite.Tubers are useful in infusion or as soup in fever, diarrhea, dysentery, dyspepsia, vomiting and cholera.

1.10.17.      Corifolia, (Babchi).

·                   Psoralea corylifolia.

·                   Family: Papilionaceae.

            This common herbaceous weed is found in Bengal, Bombay and all over the plains of India. Its seeds which have an agreeable aromatic odour and pungent bitterish taste are anthelmintic, diuretic and diaphoretic. The seeds are described in Ayurveda as hot and dry, laxative, fragrant, stimulant and aphrodisiae, sedative for internal ulcers. Seeds are useful in bilious affections and are also used to make a perfumed oil.

1.10.18       Turpeth, (Turbad).

·                   Ipomea turpetum.

·                   Family:Consulvlaceae

            This perennial plant grows wildly nearby all over the India. They have two varieties; sveta (white) and Krishna(black). Common use are cathartic and lexativ. The dark variety is drastic in action like hellebore black and therefore it is not in use. It is used to expel balgham and sanda. It is useful in brain diseases, stomach and uterus disorders. In paralysis and bolgham cough, it is helpful for the removal of propsical effusions.

1.10.19 Bambosa,(Tabasheer)

·                   Bambusa arundiacea

·                   Family: Gramineae.

            India, Burma, Ceylon often cultivated.The stems and leaves are acrid, bitter, cooling, laxative useful in “kapha ”, burning sensation, disease of the blood, biliousness, leucoderma, inflammation, strangury, wound, piles. The sprouts are pungent, acrid, laxative and useful in strangury causes burning sensation and increase cough. The seed are acrid, sweet, fattening, aphrodisiac, alexiteric, useful in biliousness, urinary discharge. The manna is sweet, cooling, acrid with the flavor tonic, aphrodisiac, constipating, useful in the disease of blood, tuberculosis, bronchitis, asthma, fever, leprosy, jaundice, anemia, strangury, burning sensations.The root is tonic, burnt and applied to ringworms, bleeding gums, joint pains. The leaves are emmenagogue, good as an eye wash; lessenbronchitis, lumbago, piles, biliousness gonorrhea and fever. The juice of the flower dropped in the ear for earache and deafness. In the Tamil country, the root is considered diluents, the bark is used as a cure for eruptions; the leaves are used as emmenagoue, the tabaseer is given in paralysis, flatulence.Tabasheer is generally given in fever to assuage thirst; it is used also as an expectorant.

1.10.20 Bitter Stick, Chiretta, (Charaita).

·                   Swertia chirata.

·                   Family: Gentiaceae.

            It is found in the hills of Kashmir to Bhotan, found in Nepal, Dakan and other parts of India, Iran and France. It is used as a blood purifier, laxative and diuretic. It is useful in the diseases of liver and stomach and enhances the blood production inside the liver. As a blood purifier it is helpful in skin problems like acne, pimples rashes and itching. It is effectively used as a vermicide and to control the high fever.

1.11 Metal Extraction And Determination

1.11.1 Methods of plant Digestion:

            For mineral determination, plants/herbs are digested firstly. There are 3 methods mainly for the digestion of plants; which are discussed blow.

1.11.1.1           Microwave Digestion:

            In this type of digestion the plants is digested with HNO₃ and H₂O₂ under pressure in a closed vessel heated by microwave and then the amount of metal is determined by flame or furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometer or some other technique.

1.11.1.2           Dry Digestion:

            In this process, the plant sample is dried and then ashed at 450oC under gradual increase in temperature. HCl is added and the soln. is added to dryness. The residue is dissolved in HNO₃and analyzes to determine by AAS.

1.11.1.3           Wet Digestion:

            For metal determination of plants, the sample is immersed in concentrated acids like HNO₃, HCl in a suitable ratio (1:3 as of aqua regia), HF, H₂SO₄, etc. The organic parts are digested by strong acids and minerals can be determined by a suitable technique.

1.11.2 DETECTION OF METALS

1.11.2.1 Traditional techniques

            Although modern analytical chemistry is dominated by sophisticated instrumentation, the roots of analytical chemistry and some of the principles used in modern instruments are from traditional techniques many of which are still used today.

1.11.2.1.1 Titration/ Volumetric  Method.

            Titration involves the addition of a reactant to a solution being analyzed until some equivalence point is reached. Often the amount of metal in the solution being analyzed may be determined. Most familiar to those who have taken the acid-base titration involving a color changing indicator. There are many other types of titrations, for example potentiometric titrations. These titrations may use different types of indicators to reach some equivalence point.

1.11.2.1.2Gravimetric Method.

            Gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of metal present by weighing the sample before and/or after some transformation. A common example used in undergraduate education is the determination of the amount of water in a hydrate by heating the sample to remove the water such that the difference in weight is due to the water lost.

1.11.2.1.3 Inorganic qualitative analysis

            Inorganic qualitative analysis generally refers to a systematic scheme to confirm the presence of certain, usually aqueous, ions or elements by performing a series of reactions that eliminate ranges of possibilities and then confirms suspected ions with a confirming test. Sometimes small carbon containing ions are included in such schemes. With modern instrumentation these tests are rarely used but can be useful for educational purposes and in field work or other situations where access to state-of-the-art instruments are not available or expedient.

1.11.2.2Instrumental Analysis

1.11.2.2.1 Spectroscopy

            Spectroscopy measures the interaction of the molecules with electromagnetic radiation. Spectroscopy consists of many different applications such as atomic absorption spectroscopy, atomic emission spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, photoemission spectroscopy, Mössbauer spectroscopy and so on.

 1.11.2.2.2 Mass Spectrometry

            Mass spectrometry measures mass-to-charge ratio of molecules using electric and magnetic fields. There are several ionization methods: electron impact, chemical ionization, electrospray, fast atom bombardment, matrix assisted laser desorption ionization, and others. Also, mass spectrometry is categorized by approaches of mass analyzers: magnetic-sector,quadrupole mass anal, and so on.yzer, quadrupole ion trap, Time-of-flight, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance

1.11.2.2.3 Crystallography

            Crystallography is a technique that characterizes the chemical structure of metal at the atomic level by analyzing the diffractionpatterns of usually x-rays that have been deflected by atoms in the material. From the raw data the relative placement of atoms in space may be determined.

1.11.2.2.4  Electrochemical Analysis

            Electroanalytical methods measure the potential(volts) and/or current (amps) in an electrochemical cell containing the analyte. These methods can be categorized according to which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The three main categories are potentiometry(the difference in electrode potentials is measured), coulometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential).

1.11.2.2.5 Thermal Analysis

Calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis measure the interaction of a material and heat.

1.11.2.2.6 Hybrid Techniques

            Combinations of the above techniques produce "hybrid" or "hyphenated" techniques. Several examples are in popular use today and new hybrid techniques are under development. For example, Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, LC-MS, GC-IR, LC-NMR, LC-IR, CE-MS, and so on.

            Hyphenated separation techniques refers to a combination of two (or more) techniques to detect and separate metals from solutions. Most often the other technique is some form of chromatography. Hyphenated techniques are widely used in metallergy.

Examples of hyphenated techniques:

LC-MS(or HPLC-MS,

HPLC/ESI-MS,

LC-DAD,

CE-MS,

1.11.3 FLAME ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETERY:

1.11.3.1 Introduction:

            In analytical chemistry, atomic absorption spectroscopy is a technique for determining the concentration of a particular metal element in a sample. Atomic absorption spectroscopy can be used to analyze the concentration of over 62 different metals in a solution.

1.11.3.2 History

            Although atomic absorption spectroscopy dates to the nineteenth century, the modern form was largely developed during the 1950s by a team of Australian chemists. They were led by Alan Walsh and worked at the CSIRO (Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organization) Division of Chemical Physics in Melbourne, Australia.

1.11.3.3 Principle

            The technique makes use of absorption spectrometry to assess the concentration of an analyte in a sample. It relies therefore heavily on Beer-Lambert law.

            “In short, the electrons of the atoms in the atomizer can be promoted to higher orbitals for an instant by absorbing a set quantity of energy (i.e. light of a given wavelength). This amount of energy (or wavelength) is specific to a particular electron transition in a particular element, and in general, each wavelength corresponds to only one element. This gives the technique its elemental selectivity.”

            As the quantity of energy (the power) put into the flame is known, and the quantity remaining at the other side (at the detector) can be measured, it is possible, from Beer-Lambert law, to calculate how many of these transitions took place, and thus get a signal that is proportional to the concentration of the element being measured.

Beer-Lambert Law:

            The absorption is directly proportional to the concentration of the analyte and the optical path length. 

                           

                          A   α  C. l

                          A   =  є. C. l

Where

A=Absorption

C=Concentration of the analyte

l=optical path length

є=Molar absorptivity constant.......... reading .......

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Introduction

Literature Review

Experimental Work

Results and Discussion

References